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miércoles, 10 de octubre de 2018
lunes, 8 de octubre de 2018
Questionnaire - Inca Civilization
Questionnaire
1. What is particular about the Inca Empire?
2. Why do you think the architecture impresses people?
3. What are pacarinas?
4. How were the Incas originated? What Gods were involved?
5. How was the government organised?
6. How were the taxes paid?
7. What was a quipu or khipu? What was its use?
8. What was Cuzco? What word does it come from?
9. Why does the splendour of Cuzco only survive in the minds of the first Europeans to go?
10. Describe their religion.
11. How did they impose their religion?
12. What were the typical buildings?
13. What is characteristic of the Inca art?
14. What did the Spanish take advantage of?
15. How did the Empire fall?
martes, 25 de septiembre de 2018
Questionnaire - Aztec civilization
Questionnaire
1 What was the Triple Alliance?
2. What is an hegemonic empire?
3. Who were the calpullis? What did they do?
4. How did people treat the Huey Tlatcani? Why?
5. What led to a massive sacrifice during the 15th century?
6. How was the government organized? Name its integrants and their functions.
7. How did they rule the empire?
8. What were the social classes?
9. What was particular about the education? What difference was there between boys’ and girls’ education?
10. How were the marriages built?
11. What different activities did men and women do?
12. What were the ueuetque?
13. Write a brief description of the Aztec’s religion.
14. What were the causes of the fall of the empire?
15. How did the arrival of the Spanish accelerate this process?
lunes, 17 de septiembre de 2018
Inca Empire
Civilization
The Inca civilization flourished in ancient Peru between c. 1400 and 1533 CE, and their empire eventually extended across western South America from Quito in the north to Santiago in the south, making it the largest empire ever seen in the Americas and the largest in the world at that time. Undaunted by the often harsh Andean environment, the Incas conquered people and exploited landscapes in such diverse settings as plains, mountains, deserts, and tropical jungle. Famed for their unique art and architecture, they constructed finely-built and imposing buildings wherever they conquered, and their spectacular adaptation of natural landscapes with terracing, highways, and mountaintop settlements continues to impress modern visitors at such world famous sites as Machu Picchu.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
As with other ancient Americas cultures, the historical origins of the Incas are difficult to disentangle from the founding myths they themselves created. According to legend, in the beginning, the creator god Viracocha came out of the Pacific Ocean, and when he arrived at Lake Titicaca, he created the sun and all ethnic groups. These first people were buried by the god and only later did they emerge from springs and rocks (sacred pacarinas) back into the world. The Incas, specifically, were brought into existence at Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) from the sun god Inti, hence, they regarded themselves as the chosen few, the 'Children of the Sun', and the Inca ruler was Inti's representative and embodiment on earth. In another version of the creation myth, the first Incas came from a sacred cave known as Tampu T'oqoor 'The House of Windows', which was located at Pacariqtambo, the 'Inn of Dawn', south of Cuzco. The first pair of humans were Manco Capac (or Manqo Qhapaq) and his sister (also his wife) Mama Oqllu (or Ocllo). Three more brother-sister siblings were born, and the group set off together to found their civilization. Defeating the Chanca people with the help of stone warriors (pururaucas), the first Incas finally settled in the Valley of Cuzco and Manco Capac, throwing a golden rod into the ground, established what would become the Inca capital, Cuzco.
More concrete archaeological evidence has revealed that the first settlements in the Cuzco Valley actually date to 4500 BCE when hunter-gather communities occupied the area. However, Cuzco only became a significant centre sometime at the beginning of the Late Intermediate Period (1000-1400 CE). A process of regional unification began from the late 14th century CE, and from the early 15th century CE, with the arrival of the first great Inca leader Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui ('Reverser of the World') and the defeat of the Chanca in 1438 CE, the Incas began to expand in search of plunder and production resources, first to the south and then in all directions. They eventually built an empire which stretched across the Andes, conquering such peoples as the Lupaka, Colla, Chimor, and Wanka civilizations along the way. Once established, a nationwide system of tax and administration was instigated which consolidated the power of Cuzco.
The rise of the Inca Empire was spectacularly quick. First, all speakers of the Inca language Quechua (or Runasimi) were given privileged status, and this noble class then dominated all the important roles within the empire. Thupa Inca Yupanqui (also known as Topa Inca), Pachacuti's successor from 1471 CE, is credited with having expanded the empire by a massive 4,000 km (2,500 miles). The Incas themselves called their empire Tawantinsuyo (or Tahuantinsuyu) meaning 'Land of the Four Quarters' or 'The Four Parts Together'. Cuzco was considered the navel of the world, and radiating out were highways and sacred sighting lines (ceques) to each quarter: Chinchaysuyu (north), Antisuyu (east), Collasuyu (south), and Cuntisuyu (west). Spreading across ancient Ecuador, Peru, northern Chile, Bolivia, upland Argentina, and southern Colombia and stretching 5,500 km (3,400 miles) north to south, 40,000 Incas governed a huge territory with some 10 million subjects speaking over 30 different languages.
GOVERNMENT & ADMINISTRATION
The Incas kept lists of their kings (Sapa Inca) so that we know of such names as Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (reign c. 1438-63 CE), Thupa Inca Yupanqui (reign c. 1471-93 CE), and Wayna Qhapaq (the last pre-Hispanic ruler, reign c. 1493-1525 CE). It is possible that two kings ruled at the same time and that queens may have had some significant powers, but the Spanish records are not clear on both points. The Sapa Inca was an absolute ruler, and he lived a life of great opulence. Drinking from gold and silver cups, wearing silver shoes, and living in a palace furnished with the finest textiles, he was pampered to the extreme. He was even looked after following his death, as the Inca mummified their rulers. Stored in the Coricancha temple in Cuzco, the mummies (mallquis) were, in elaborate ceremonies, regularly brought outside wearing their finest regalia, given offerings of food and drink, and 'consulted' for their opinion on pressing state affairs.
Inca rule was, much like their architecture, based on compartmentalised and interlocking units. At the top was the ruler and ten kindred groups of nobles called panaqa. Next in line came ten more kindred groups, more distantly related to the king and then, a third group of nobles not of Inca blood but made Incas as a privilege. At the bottom of the state apparatus were locally recruited administrators who oversaw settlements and the smallest Andean population unit the ayllu, which was a collection of households, typically of related families who worked an area of land, lived together and provided mutual support in times of need. Each ayllu was governed by a small number of nobles or kurakas, a role which could include women.
Local administrators reported to over 80 regional-level administrators who, in turn, reported to a governor responsible for each quarter of the empire. The four governors reported to the supreme Inca ruler in Cuzco. To ensure loyalty, the heirs of local rulers were also kept as well-kept prisoners at the Inca capital. The most important political, religious, and military roles within the empire were, then, kept in the hands of the Inca elite, called by the Spanish the orejones or 'big ears' because they wore large earspools to indicate their status. To better ensure the control of this elite over their subjects, garrisons dotted the empire, and entirely new administrative centres were built, notably at Tambo Colorado, Huánuco Pampa and Hatun Xauxa.
For tax purposes censuses were taken and populations divided up into groups based on multiples of ten (Inca mathematics was almost identical to the system we use today). As there was no currency in the Inca world, taxes were paid in kind - usually foodstuffs, precious metals, textiles, exotic feathers, dyes, and spondylus shell - but also in labourers who could be shifted about the empire to be used where they were most needed, known as mit'a service. Agricultural land and herds were divided into three parts: production for the state religion and the gods, for the Inca ruler, and for the farmers own use. Local communities were also expected to help build and maintain such imperial projects as the road system which stretched across the empire. To keep track of all these statistics, the Inca used the quipu, a sophisticated assembly of knots and strings which was also highly transportable and could record decimals up to 10,000.
Khipu Although the Incas imposed their religion and administration on conquered peoples, extracted tribute, and even moved loyal populations (mitmaqs) to better integrate new territories into the empire, the Incas also brought certain benefits such as food redistribution in times of environmental disaster, better storage facilities for foodstuffs, work via state-sponsored projects, state-sponsored religious feasts, roads, military assistance and luxury goods, especially art objects enjoyed by the local elite.
CUZCO
The Inca capital of Cuzco (from qosqo, meaning 'dried-up lake bed' or perhaps derived from cozco, a particular stone marker in the city) was the religious and administrative centre of the empire and had a population of up to 150,000 at its peak. Dominated by the sacred gold-covered and emerald-studded Coricancha complex (or Temple of the Sun), its greatest buildings were credited to Pachacuti. Most splendid were the temples built in honour of Inti and Mama Kilya - the former was lined with 700 2kg sheets of beaten gold, the latter with silver. The whole capital was laid out in the form of a puma (although some scholars dispute this and take the description metaphorically) with the imperial metropolis of Pumachupan forming the tail and the temple complex of Sacsayhuaman (or Saqsawaman) forming the head. Incorporating vast plazas, parklands, shrines, fountains, and canals, the splendour of Inca Cuzco now, unfortunately, survives only in the eye-witness accounts of the first Europeans who marvelled at its architecture and riches.
INCA RELIGION
The Inca had great reverence for two earlier civilizations who had occupied much the same territory - the Wari and Tiwanaku. As we have seen, the sites of Tiwanaku and Lake Titicaca played an important part in Inca creation myths and so were especially revered. Inca rulers made regular pilgrimages to Tiwanaku and the islands of the lake, where two shrines were built to Inti the Sun god and supreme Inca deity, and the moon goddess Mama Kilya. Also in the Coricancha complex at Cuzco, these deities were represented by large precious metalartworks which were attended and worshipped by priests and priestesses led by the second most important person after the king: the High Priest of the Sun (Willaq Umu). Thus, the religion of the Inca was preoccupied with controlling the natural world and avoiding such disasters as earthquake, floods, and drought, which inevitably brought about the natural cycle of change, the turning over of time involving death and renewal which the Inca called pachakuti.
Sacred sites were also established, often taking advantage of prominent natural features such as mountain tops, caves, and springs. These huacas could be used to take astronomical observations at specific times of the year. Religious ceremonies took place according to the astronomical calendar, especially the movements of the sun, moon, and Milky Way (Mayu). Processions and ceremonies could also be connected to agriculture, especially the planting and harvesting seasons. Along with Titicaca's Island of the Sun, the most sacred Inca site was Pachacamac, a temple city built in honour of the god with the same name, who created humans, plants, and was responsible for earthquakes. A large wooden statue of the god, considered an oracle, brought pilgrims from across the Andes to worship at Pachacamac. Shamans were another important part of Inca religion and were active in every settlement. Cuzco had 475, the most important being the yacarca, the personal advisor to the ruler.
Inca religious rituals also involved ancestor worship as seen through the practice of mummification and making offerings to the gods of food, drink, and precious materials. Sacrifices - both animals and humans, including children - were also made to pacify and honour the gods and ensure the good health of the king. The pouring of libations, either water or chicha beer, was also an important part of Inca religious ceremonies.
The Incas imposed their religion on local populations by building their own temples and sacred sites, and they also commandeered sacred relics from conquered peoples and held them in Cuzco. Stored in the Coricancha, they were perhaps considered hostages which ensured compliance to the Inca view of the world.
Machu Picchu INCA ARCHITECTURE & ROADS
Master stone masons, the Incas constructed large buildings, walls and fortifications using finely-worked blocks - either regular or polygonal - which fitted together so precisely no mortar was needed. With an emphasis on clean lines, trapezoid shapes, and incorporating natural features into these buildings, they have easily withstood the powerful earthquakes which frequently hit the region. The distinctive sloping trapezoid form and fine masonry of Inca buildings were, besides their obvious aesthetic value, also used as a recognisable symbol of Inca domination throughout the empire.
One of the most common Inca buildings was the ubiquitous one-room storage warehouse the qollqa. Built in stone and well-ventilated, they were either round and stored maize or square for potatoes and tubers. The kallanka was a very large hall used for community gatherings. More modest buildings include the kancha - a group of small single-room and rectangular buildings (wasi and masma) with thatched roofs built around a courtyard enclosed by a high wall. The kancha was a typical architectural feature of Inca towns, and the idea was exported to conquered regions. Terracing to maximise land area for agriculture (especially for maize) was another Inca practice, which they exported wherever they went. These terraces often included canals, as the Incas were expert at diverting water, carrying it across great distances, channelling it underground, and creating spectacular outlets and fountains.
Goods were transported across the empire along purpose-built roads using llamas and porters (there were no wheeled vehicles). The Inca road network covered over 40,000 km and as well as allowing for the easy movement of armies, administrators, and trade goods, it was also a very powerful visual symbol of Inca authority over their empire. The roads had rest stations along their way, and there was also a relay system of runners (chasquis) who carried messages up to 240 km in a single day from one settlement to another.
INCA ART
Although influenced by the art and techniques of the Chimu civilization, the Incas did create their own distinctive style which was an instantly recognisable symbol of imperial dominance across the empire. Inca art is best seen in highly polished metalwork (in gold - considered the sweat of the sun, silver - considered the tears of the moon, and copper), ceramics, and textiles, with the last being considered the most prestigious by the Incas themselves. Designs often use geometrical shapes, are technically accomplished, and standardized. The checkerboard stands out as a very popular design. One of the reasons for repeated designs was that pottery and textiles were often produced for the state as a tax, and so artworks were representative of specific communities and their cultural heritage. Just as today coins and stamps reflect a nation's history, so, too, Andean artwork offered recognisable motifs which either represented the specific communities making them or the imposed designs of the ruling Inca class ordering them.
Inca Ruler Atahualpa Works using precious metals such as discs, jewellery, figures, and everyday objects were made exclusively for Inca nobles, and even some textiles were restricted for their use alone. Goods made using the super-soft vicuña wool were similarly restricted, and only the Inca ruler could own vicuña herds. Ceramics were for wider use, and the most common shape was the urpu, a bulbous vessel with a long neck and two small handles low on the pot which was used for storing maize. It is notable that the pottery decoration, textiles, and architectural sculpture of the Incas did not usually include representations of themselves, their rituals, or such common Andean images as monsters and half-human, half-animal figures.
The Inca produced textiles, ceramics, and metal sculpture technically superior to any previous Andean culture, and this despite stiff competition from such masters of metal work as the expert craftsmen of the Moche civilization. Just as the Inca imposed a political dominance over their conquered subjects, so, too, with art they imposed standard Inca forms and designs, but they did allow local traditions to maintain their preferred colours and proportions. Gifted artists such as those from Chan Chan or the Titicaca area and women particularly skilled at weaving were brought to Cuzco so that they could produce beautiful things for the Inca rulers.
COLLAPSE
The Inca Empire was founded on, and maintained by, force, and the ruling Incas were very often unpopular with their subjects (especially in the northern territories), a situation that the Spanish conquistadores, led by Francisco Pizarro, would take full advantage of in the middle decades of the 16th century CE. The Inca Empire, in fact, had still not reached a stage of consolidated maturity when it faced its greatest challenge. Rebellions were rife, and the Incas were engaged in a war in Ecuador where a second Inca capital had been established at Quito. Even more serious, the Incas were hit by an epidemic of European diseases, such as smallpox, which had spread from central America even faster than the European invaders themselves, and the wave killed a staggering 65-90% of the population. Such a disease killed Wayna Qhapaq in 1528 CE and two of his sons, Waskar and Atahualpa, battled in a damaging civil war for control of the empire just when the European treasure-hunters arrived. It was this combination of factors - a perfect storm of rebellion, disease, and invasion - which brought the downfall of the mighty Inca Empire, the largest and richest ever seen in the Americas.
The Inca language Quechua lives on today and is still spoken by some eight million people. There are also a good number of buildings, artefacts, and written accounts which have survived the ravages of conquerors, looters, and time. These remains are proportionally few to the vast riches which have been lost, but they remain indisputable witnesses to the wealth, ingenuity, and high cultural achievements of this great, but short-lived civilization.
lunes, 10 de septiembre de 2018
The Aztec Civilization
The Aztec Civilization: What was it like?
You've probably heard of the Aztec civilization, but if you're like most people, there's a good chance you don't know a lot about it.
This Native American state ruled a large portion of the area that is now Mexico, between about 1428 and 1521.
The empire ended when the area was conquered by the Spanish.
However, this empire is not the homogeneous civilization that you might think of at first. The Mexica formed the head of the empire, and built their capital city of Tenochtitlan where the present day Mexico City is located. Even the Mexica were not culturally homogeneous - some researchers believe that as many as seventeen ethnic groups were among the original tribes that came south to the site of Tenochtitlan.
Organizing a Civilization
They originally formed an alliance with two other cities in the area, called Texcoco and Tlacopan, called the Triple Alliance. However, Tenochtitlan eventually became the most powerful, and began conquering other cities. Cultures in the area at the time the Mexicas arrived in the valley of Mexico included the Tepanecs, Cholcos, Xochimilcos, Tlaxcalans and others, all attempting to gain ascendancy in the valley itself.
Each state in the empire was ruled by its local government, which paid tribute and followed a number of laws dictated by the Triple Alliance. Most of the tribute went to Tenochtitlan, since it had most of the power. This type of empire is called a hegemonic or informal empire.
The territories ruled by the Aztec civilization weren't entirely connected, either. Since some city-states successfully resisted, maps of the Aztec empire often have "holes" in them. This doesn't appear to have affected the strength of the empire, however.
Had Europeans not appeared, the empire may have kept on growing. At its height, the Aztec civilization reached east and west from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. North-south, the empire stretched from Central Mexico to modern day Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala.
Ruling an Empire
Groups of families were the basic unit of government in the empire. These groups, called calpulli, had existed long before the Aztec civilization, and were set up to own land. The leaders of the calpulli set up schools for common citizens, collected taxes, and took care of basic group needs. Later calpullis were less family related and more regional, but operated in much the same way.
Leaders of the calpullis formed a city council - possibly the unit with the most power in the ancient Aztec government. Each city council had another council within it - an executive council made of four members. One of them would be the leader of the city, or tlatcani.
The council of Tenochtitlan led the empire itself, and has been compared to the senate of Rome. The leader of this group was the Huey Tlatcani, or the emperor. He was worshiped as a god, and had the support of the city council, major government officials, and the priesthood. The most famous of the Aztec emperors was Montezuma II, ruler when Cortes reached the Aztecs.
The famous human sacrifices of the Aztecs were originally infrequent, grotesque to modern eyes. It seems that, during the mid fifteenth century, a series of natural disasters convinced the Mexica that massive sacrifice was needed to satiate their gods. These practices were among the excuses that the Spanish used to attempt to destroy the empire so completely.
The remnants of the Aztec Civilization
Many people in Mexico today can trace their ancestry and some culture back to the Aztec civilization, including the language of the empire (Nahuatl) which is still spoken. If you visit the country today, you'll see a lot of relics of Aztec culture there, including elaborate stone architecture, pottery, jewelry, paintings and more. Place names, religion - even ways of thinking that were seen in the Aztec civilization are still very much a part of Mexico today.
Note: The image on this page is a mechanical clock based on the Aztec calendar of ancient times. It is on display on the grounds of the Roman Catholic Basilica in Mexico City.
Ancient Aztec Government
Ancient Aztec government got its structure from units of society that existed long before the Aztec empire was founded. First, of course, was the family unit, as a basic structure of society. The government was built up from there. Let's take a look at how the government was formed...
The Calpulli
After the family, the basic unit of ancient Aztec government was the calpulli. Families didn't individually own land, the land was owned by a group of families, the calpulli. This structure of local government existed long before the Aztec empire. The leadership in the calpulli would be responsible for the basic needs of the group. They would set up the telpochalli, a school for common citizens. They were also responsible to make sure taxes were collected from the group.
In the cities, calpullis became less family-related and more regional. As is the case today, city life brought many different individuals of different race and culture together.
Nobility and Councils
The nobility and priesthood had a lot of power in Aztec society. But although the nobility provided leadership, they weren't automatically put in government positions. In the cities, each calpulli would have a leader, and those leaders would form another council. It was the city councils that held a lot of power in the ancient Aztec government.
By the early-mid 1400s, three powerful city-states had formed the famous Triple Alliance in central Mexico. These cities were Tenochtitlán, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. These cities dominated central Mexico, and it was Tenochtitlán that came to dominate the empire.
Each council would have a kind of "executive council" within it. 4 members would be chosen who would lead, and out of those there would be one tlatcani - the leader of the city. These leaders would not only control the city proper but the surrounding area.
The Huey Tlatcani
In the leading city of Tenochtitlán, the city leaders led the empire. The city council has been compared to the Roman senate. The leader was known as the Huey Tlatcani, or Great Speaker. This was the emperor, who was worshipped as a god. His rule was supported not only by the city council, but also the priests, judges, governors, and a host of other officials. Moctezuma II is the famous Huey Tlatcani who ruled when Hernan Cortes arrived in the New World.
The Huey Tlatcani did have absolute power in a sense. However, he did come to power by a semi-democratic system, and he could be removed from power. How this position was decided upon is not fully understood - it doesn't seem to have been hereditary, but family lines did play some part.
Ancient Aztec Government and
The power of the empire
The ancient Aztec government did not rule an empire in the way we often think of the word. The control didn't stretch into every corner of life - rather, conquered lands were forced to pay tribute, but left a certain amount of freedom. Warriors made small attacks on surrounding peoples and took prisoners which would be sacrificed.
Although the expansion of the empire was often good for the conquered people - better trade and infrastructure, for example, the conquered people still obeyed in fear. Their hatred would cause many of them to turn on the empire when the Spanish gave them the chance.
The Aztec Empire
Most people today are somewhat familiar with the Aztec empire. But it may surprise you to know that there is a great deal of disagreement over what kind of an "empire" it really was. This Aztec empire history may surprise you.
Of course, even the term Aztec is a bit misleading. It's a name that is used for a group of peoples in Central Mexico, but really there wasn't any one people group that was "Aztec". The Mexica people were at the heart of the empire, but there were many other cultures that formed the civilization that the Spanish were to discover.
Estimated area of Aztec power
Aztec empire history
Many years after the Mexica people first built their proud city, Tenochtitlan (later to become Mexico City), they formed an alliance with two other cities - Texcoco (Tetzcoco) and Tlacopan (these three cities are shown as yellow dots in the map above). This Triple Alliance was to rule the Valley of Mexico until the Spanish arrived. However, over time one city become the most powerful - Tenochtitlan. It would become the heart of the Aztec civilization.
Essentially, the history of the empire is a history of city-states. As the empire expanded (which it began to do in earnest around 1428) it conquered more cities. Some cities resisted. Others were conquered and began to pay tribute.
How the empire was ruled
The city of Tenochtitlan was the military power, which spearheaded the conquest of new territory. But the Aztec emperor didn't rule every city state directly. Local governments would remain in place, but would be forced to pay varying amounts of tribute to the Triple Alliance (with most of the tribute going to Tenochtitlan).
For this reason scholar Alexander J. Motyl would call this empire a informalor hegemonic empire.
You also need to remember that the Aztecs didn't necessarily rule connected territories. Because they were conquering cities, they sometimes had power in "pockets" over an area.
But don't think that this was a weak empire. Ruling through a local government ensured that the locals would keep the people happy, and that there would be stability and continuity. This system worked very well for the peoples of the empire.
At its height
The empire might have continued to grow had not the Europeans arrived in 1519. At this time it was at its height, reaching from the Pacific to the Gulf of Mexico, from Central Mexico all the way to Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras. See this map of the Aztec empire for a visual idea.
Aztec culture
Aztec culture was a rich combination of the cultures of the peoples that made up the Aztec empire, including the Mexicas. Hundreds, even thousands of years of tradition influenced the way people lived in the society. Let's take a look at the different social classes and how they lived...
Social classes in Aztec culture
There were two main social classes in Aztec culture. First, the nobility or pilli, then the common people or macehualli. Each of these was further broken up into groups of people that had quite different lives.
There were also slaves, which were generally well-treated. Slavery was not hereditary - the children of a slave were free. There were ways for a slave to gain freedom, such as purchasing it.
Growing up Aztec
The Mexica people of the Aztec empire had compulsory education for everyone, regardless of gender or class. In the end, people in the Aztec society were generally well educated, though boys received a wider education than girls.
Girls were taught how to run a home, cook, and care for a family, but they were also taught things like crafts and ways to economically run the home. In this way women had a lot of power in society, though it was behind the scenes.
Note: Mandatory education was historically rare in the rest of the world.
Boys learned other trades, and were also taught fighting skills and leadership skills.
Though children started off with similar education, it was eventually split into two main branches. First the calmecac, which was mainly for children of nobles. These children would be educated as priests, teachers, doctors, and leaders of society. Next came the telpochcalli, where children were taught more about Aztec culture and religion, the trades, and skills particular to gender. It seems that there was some freedom to choose a type of education, and perhaps some children were promoted who showed promise in a specific field. It may also be that vocation was chosen based on the religious "sign" children were born under. Just who could go where is a matter of some debate today.
In their mid-teens, adult life would begin. Girls would marry, or stay in the temple and work. Boys might join the military or begin their trade. Marriages were arranged and again strongly tied to religious belief. Some polygamy was practised, though there was still a "primary" wife.
Adult Aztec culture
The noble class had a variety of vocations open to them. They would have positions of leadership and influence, as mentioned above. They would also have some wealth, and unlike the common people they were allowed to enjoy works of art.
The higher level of nobility, usually hereditary to some extent, were the pilli(singular pipiltin). They would hold high positions in government or in the military.
There were also various classes of common people. There were farmers, who were very efficient. There were merchants, who would travel and trade. These people had a fair amount of freedom to be independent and wear stylish clothes. There were artisans of various kinds. Every type of job needed to run a society that you can imagine.
Another occupation of status was to be an athlete. Aztec culture had its own version of Ulama, a game played in Mesoamerica. The game was very popular and the players were celebrities.
Aztec life was permeated by religion. The cycles of the calendar and rituals associated with it to keep nature in balance and appease the gods were a big part of Aztec culture.
Everyday life
Except for the nobility, the people were quite poor, even though great wealth was available in general. The people lived in adobe homes, made of mud bricks. One building was for sleeping and cooking and eating and worship. Another building contained a steam bath. It was believed that the bath was important for good health (a bath is never a bad idea!). Houses of the noble class were bigger, and, as mentioned, were more lavishly decorated.
Life was much as it is most places in the world today - relationships, shopping, music, meals, entertainment was all there. There was poetry, dramatic presentations, art and athletics.
A big part of entertainment for the Aztecs was the Aztec ball game. Special occasions drew the spectators, and the players were celebrities.
But in Aztec culture the warrior was glorified for religious reasons. Taking prisoners and sacrificing them to the gods was an increasingly important ritual. Though life was very structured, it seemed close to chaos as the people tried to avoid natural and imagined disaster.
Age and death
As people got older, and more disease arrived, the the religious healer would be called for. Medical science and religious ritual went side by side. When death came, people would be cremated or buried, depending on how they died and the family's choice.
Aztec Social Classes
The Aztec social classes grew incredibly sophisticated and complex once the Mexica people settled and began to build their empire. It's been said that the class structure was so elaborate that it impressed the Spanish almost as much as the architecture of the empire. And the way it all started is a fascinating story.
The Mexica people, who later became the nucleus of the Aztec empire, were, for a time, a nomadic tribe looking for a home. As they moved south, they came into contact with advanced peoples. Many peoples of the day looked back to the impressive culture of the Toltecs, and the Aztecs came to admire the Toltec heritage. In fact, eventually the word for artistic creations would be toltecat, for the Toltecs, and the Aztecs themselves would claim to be descended from the great Toltec nobles.
The Mexicas were anxious to claim a Toltec heritage, so they chose a nobleman of Toltec origin as their first king, a man named Acamapichtli. He fathered a great many children by 20 wives, and his descendants became the heart of a new social class in the empire - the nobles or pipiltin (singular pilli). From then on, a king would always be chosen from among the pipiltin.
The nobles had many other privileges. They generally received a fuller education, they were allowed to wear fancier clothes and decorate their houses. They were allowed to hold important government offices. But not all had positions of authority - some were craftsmen, or even palace servants. Those who served with distinction could move up the ranks.
Basically, the ruling positions were not hereditary, but preference was given to those in the "royal families".
The Commoners
Technically, there were only two Aztec social classes - the nobles and the commoners. The common people were the macehualtin (singular macehualli). Besides these two main classes, there were a number of different positions that worked like sub-classes. Many of the macehualtin worked the land. They might work a portion of land for life, though technically it was communally owned, and they would work under authority. Some were only hired hands or tenants, and some were even slaves.
Slavery (a slave was a tlacotli) was not hereditary, and there were ways for a slave to gain freedom. If someone was in economic difficulty, they could sell themselves as slaves. Slaves were strictly protected by the law.
As time went by and farming became more efficient, less people were needed to farm, and other parts of society became stronger. Craftsmen and merchants, for example, had a higher social status in society.
Merchants were a privilege class. With the ability to travel and deal in valuable objects, they had a certain amount of freedom many Aztecs didn't have.
Also, in a world where war was so common the soldier had a good chance of rising in the ranks. A soldier who served with distinction could hold an office normally held for a pilli. In this way, almost all levels of government could be shared with the commoner as well as the noble. A warrior who captured many prisoners could be knighted. This would be the first major step up the ranks.
Aztec Society Family
It's very interesting to wonder what life would have been like in a normal Aztec society family. There are many things we do know, although the record is frustratingly sparse. Record keepers were more interested in other aspects of society, and family life was considered the sphere of women.
Still, there are many things we do know. Like other aspects of Aztec culture, life in an Aztec society family was permeated by religious beliefs, right from the start. Each decision was ruled by the laws of religion, and often tied to the sacred days in the Aztec calendar.
The life of a new family began at marriage, typically in the early 20s for a man and mid-teens for the woman. Marriages were arranged by the relatives (though the children may have had input). The parents would have to talk to the religious leaders, and discuss the signs under which both of the children had been born. The wedding day, of course, was chosen for similar religious reasons.
Men and women
All this was full of ceremony and form. In Aztec society family a husband may have had more than one wife - but it would be his primary wife that would go through all the ceremony. The man may have many secondary wives, who would also be officially recognized. The children of the principal wife would be the inheritors - or, in the case of a ruler, only a child from the principal wife would be a successor. Still, the husband was supposed to treat all wives equally in daily life.
As you may imagine, one family could grow very large. As a result, most of the husbands with numerous wives and children were the wealthy ones, with the poor more likely to have one wife.
In one sense, society was dominated by the men. The man was considered the head of the home. However, women had a great deal of power as well. They may have had more power in earlier times, with men taking more power toward the end of the Aztec era.
Women often were able to run business out of their homes, and had a lot of influence in the family and the raising of children. The older widows were much respected, and people listened to their advice.
Adultery was a crime - death was the punishment. Divorce was allowed on certain grounds, presented by the man or woman, property was divided equally and both sides were free.
Marriage and children
Marriage marked the entrance into Aztec adult and independat society. The family was given a piece of land, and they would have their own home. Depending on their situation, both the man and the woman may be involved in working the land. Of course, while a woman was involved in household tasks, a man would be more likely to become a warrior. Though there were many occupations (farmer, priest, doctor, etc), being an Aztec warrior was particularly glorified.
War was even used as a symbol of childbirth. The baby was a "captive" in the womb, struggling to be victorious. The woman, too, was in a battle. In fact, in many ways a woman who died in childbirth was glorified in the same way as a warrior who died in battle, and honoured for her courage.
A child was welcomed into the world and into the religious system. A hymn for the new child to the goddess of child birth went like this:
Down there, where Ayopechcatl lives, the jewel is born, a child has come into the world.
It is down there, in her own place, that the children are born.
Come, come here, new-born child, come here.
Come, come here, jewel-child, come here.
(from the Codex Florentino)
A soothsayer would be called to study the signs of the child. He would inquire about the exact moment of the child's birth. The birth would be cause for more ritual and great celebration.
From what we know, parents loved their children very much. We know that parents often used flowery pet names for their children (for example, a father speaking to his son - "Nopiltze, nocuzque, noquetzale" - sweet son, my jewel, my precious feather.
Then again, when it came to discipline, parents in an Aztec society family ruled with an iron hand.
Work and education
Fathers taking their sons to school
Education, at least in the early years, was the responsibility of the parents. The father would teach the sons, and the mother the daughters. Work and education then would a big part of the Aztec society family. Work could also break up the family - the father might travel, or in the case of warriors may die on the battlefield.
As I mentioned, discipline was often harsh. Up until the age of 8, the preferred method of discipline was simply verbal. But harsh punishments would be in store for the older child, as he was prepared for the harsher realities of Aztec life.
As children grew older, parents would still be in charge of education, but they would more often send the children to school. There were various branches of education that children would be involved in.
Elderly family members
If a family member escaped death on the battlefield or death from illness and so on... they would be among the ueuetque - the wise elders of society. They would offer advice, either informally or on a council. Of course, they were held in high regard in the family itself. The elderly were important in the Aztec society family, and their health care, aging and death was also a matter of ritual and religion.
Summary - Aztec society family
An Aztec society family was ruled in many ways by religion, tradition, and structure. Life was ruled by fate - from beginning to end your family life, occupation, and success depended on the important dates in your life and the structure of the universe and the nature of the gods. At the same time, life was full of celebration, hard work, joy, sorrow, and love, much as it has been in societies around the world for all of history.
Ancient Aztec Religion
Ancient Aztec religion was a complex interaction of gods, dates, directions and colours. It seems that most of the preoccupation in the religion had to do with fear of the nature, and a fear of the end of the world.
By the time the Mexica's Empire (Mexica is the proper name for the tribe at the heart of the Aztec empire) was at its height, the political and religion systems were in close interaction. The actions of the ruling classes and common people can be best understood if we look way back to the Mexica understanding of the creation, or rather creations, of the world. Because the religion was a mixture from various peoples, there are variations. We'll give a general overview here.
In the Beginnings
Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent
According to ancient Aztec religion, it took the gods 5 tries to create the world. These attempts were foiled because of infighting among the gods themselves. After he was knocked from his exalted position by rivals, the first creator, Tezcatlipoca, turned into a jaguar and destroyed the world. Under similar circumstances, the world was created and then destroyed with wind, and then two floods.
Each time a creator-god would take a turn being the sun. Finally the gods had a council, and decided one of them would have to sacrifice himself to be the new sun. Nanauatl, a lowly, humble god became the sun, but there was a problem - he wasn't moving. The gods realized that they all must sacrifice themselves so that humans could live. The god Ehecatl sacrificed the others, and a mighty wind arose to move the sun at last.
This was no free sacrifice, however. Not only would the people have to help this weak sun to keep moving, they would also be responsible to repay the sacrifice. The world remained in a precarious position!
Once the sun was dealt with, the world had to be recreated. Quetzalcoatl(meaning feathered serpent) was the one who would create humans. Of course, people had been created several times before, so Quetzalcoatl descended into the underworld to retrieve their bones. He tripped as he fled, and the bones shattered into different sized pieces, which is why people are all different sizes. By adding his own blood to the mix, people came to life.
The calendar and the sun
The ancient Aztec religion was highly focused on keeping nature in balance. One false step could lead to natural disaster. The weak sun could stop moving. In the sky was a constant battle between light and darkness, a battle that would someday be lost.
Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird of the South) was the warrior sun (either the sun god or the one who fights for the sun god, Tonatiuh (the name given to Nanauatl)). Huitzilopochtli (or Tonatiuh) needed blood sacrifice in order to win the battle against darkness. Either there would be ritual blood-letting, or actual people would be sacrificed. Those sacrificed would rise to fight with him. And so human sacrifices became more and more common in Mexico. Often battles would be fought just to capture prisoners to sacrifice - the Aztec flower war.
Every 52 years, the people were terrified that the world would end. All religious fires were extinguished; people all over the empire would destroy their furniture and precious belongings and go into mourning. When the constellation of the Pleiades appeared, the people would be assured that they were safe for another 52 years.
The world in ancient Aztec religion was divided up into 4 quadrants, and the center - their city Tenochtitlán. The heavens were divided into 13 ascending layers, and the underworld 9 descending layers. The heavens and underworld may be better described as wheels within wheels, a more common form for the Aztecs than layers or lines. The temple in Tenochtitlán was also the place where the forces of heaven and earth intersected.
The end
Prophecies were a part of the ancient Aztec religion. Many scholars today believe that the Aztec people thought that the conquerer Hernan Cortes was their god-hero Quetzalcoatl, who had been banished. Whether or not the more educated upper class shared this belief is questionable.
The afterlife of a person was based mostly on how they died. Some, such as those sacrificed to Huitzilopochtli, would join the battle against the darkness. In ancient Aztec religion, some would eventually be reincarnated as birds or butterflies, or eventually humans. Some would be, for a time, disembodied spirits roaming the earth. Most at some point would have to make the long journey through the 9 levels of the underworld. People would be buried in a squatting position, with items that would help them in their journey. In the end they would live in darkness.
The great temple at Tenochtitlán today,
where temples to the gods Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc stood
To summarize
Ancient Aztec religion was focused on how the gods, humans and nature were interconnected. There was a strong emphasis on the worship of Huitzilopochtli. The military conquest and ritual sacrifices were all related, and in a great part focused on helping Huitzilopochtli keep the sun strong so that disaster could be averted every 52 years.
Mexico City history
It is believed that central Mexico has been inhabited for thousands of years, but Mexico City history really begins in 1325AD. In recent memory before 1325, the area was actually covered by a lake, Lake Texcoco. But an incredible transformation was about to take place, launching Mexico City history in a way few would have expected.
Mexico City's central square.
This has been the heart of the city since its founding
The founding of Tenochtitlan
The Mexica people were living as outcasts in central Mexico. Legend says they migrated from a place called Aztlan, but they had failed to find a home in this part of Mexico. But they believed that they would see a sign - and eagle perched on a cactus. They saw just such a sign on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, and on the 8th of June 1325 their city was born.
It seemed like an unlikely place for a city. Not only was the island small and difficult to access, the lake itself was salty. But the Mexicas knew how to make the best out of a seemingly bad situation. Soon causeways were built leading to the city, making it accessible to merchants and travellers but easy to defend in case of an attack. Aqueducts were built, providing the city with fresh water. A system of agriculture developed, making the area extremely fruitful and efficient, providing the city with food.
As the city was built, roadways grew up and parts of the lake were filled in. Tenochtitlan was to become the "Venice of the New World", a series of canals, city and farmland, well planned, equal or better than any city in the world.
The Aztec Empire
In this early Mexico City history, Tenochtitlan immediately became the centre of a growing empire. The Mexicas developed alliances with other cities, got tribute from other peoples, and ruled throughout central Mexico. The city became a major centre for trade, military operations, culture, and political power.
The Spanish arrive
Hernan Cortes from Spain arrived with his army in 1519, and in two years after a 79 day siege had captured Tenochtitan. The old Aztec city was mostly destroyed, and was rebuilt by 1525. It should be noted, however, that this was not simply a brand new city. Much of the Aztec culture and layout, and of course many of the people, remained the same. To understand Mexico City history, it's important to remember that it's not so easy to wipe out an empire. Just as the Aztec way of life had grown from the many cultures before it, so the new Mexico City, even the one we know today, is still in part the ancient city of Tenochtitlan.
Mexico City was still the centre of culture and power in Mexico. It was also where places as far as Cuba, Florida and even the Philippines were administered. No doubt Cortes had recognized the importance of the city, and continued its tradition of power.
The Fall of the Aztec Empire
What caused the fall of the Aztec empire? We do know that there were a number of factors involved, not just one. There are probably many factors that we don't know about that were already contributing to the weakness of the empire. But let's look at some of the most obvious, immediate factors:
The sacrifices
Armour of a Spanish solder
On display at the
National Anthropological Museum, Mexico City
There's little doubt that the ritual Aztec sacrifice contributed to the fall of the Aztec Empire, and in more ways than one. First, killing thousands of people, whether you or your neighbours, simply can't be good for a society. The loss of people in a loss that can't be calculated. Who knows how it would have been different if these people and their children had swelled the ranks that fought the Spanish, not to mention the other contributions they would have made.
And although the Aztecs certainly weren't the first people ever to sacrifice humans, the fact that they did and the incredible number they sacrificed led to the hatred of some of the surrounding peoples. The powerful city-state of Tlaxcala was one of these. Many of their own had been sacrificed, and in the end they joined the Spaniards to fight the Aztecs. It may be that the Spanish simply were an excuse to start what was already an inevitable civil war.
Lastly, it's believed that the horror of human sacrifice highly motivated the Spaniards to conquer what they considered an evil culture - in other words, they used it to justify their war with the empire.
Religion
Naturally, religion played a part because of the sacrifices. It has been commonly believed that, at first, the Aztecs thought that the Spanish were gods.
This belief is more and more being questioned - it may be a fabrication. Religious, yes, but the nobles were also well educated. Even if they did have such a passing thought, it's unlikely it lasted long. In addition, there's no reason to believe that Cortes and his men wouldn't have been welcomed anyway, with similar results. Modern scholars are questioning whether this belief in the return of the god Quetzalcoatl was real or a later rewrite of history.
Even more interesting is the theory that, at one point, the Aztecs did not completely destroy the Spanish army because they wanted more people to sacrifice to their gods. This was a tactical error that at least hastened the fall of the Aztec empire.
Disease
Disease played a huge part in the fall of the Aztec empire. Here's what happened.
After Cortes landed in Mexico, another Spanish army came from Cuba to make sure he followed orders. Cortes would have none of that, and went to fight them. In this new group was an African being held as a slave, who had smallpox, a very contagious disease.
One of Cortes' men contracted the disease. When they returned, the Aztec army quickly overwhelmed the Spanish, killing many and causing the rest to retreat. The soldier was killed, and, likely when his body was looted, an Aztec caught the disease.
Quickly, smallpox spread among the population. The people had no resistance and no idea how to treat it. In many cases, everyone in a house died. With no time to bury so many people, houses were simply demolished over the bodies. It is estimated that 5-8 million died.
During the siege of Tenochtitlán in 1520, the population was not only low on food but dying of smallpox. 25% of the empire is said to have been lost to the disease alone. But more importantly, the Aztec chain of command was in ruins. The emperor, Cuitláhuac, died of smallpox, along with many of the leaders of the army.
(Actually, there were a series of epidemics over the next 50-60 years, which killed far more than the first epidemic. Called by the Aztecs cocoliztli, much of the death toll may have been caused by salmonella enterica)
Tactics
The tactics of the Spanish army certainly played a role. The Mexicas were simply used to playing by different rules. However, the Aztecs soon got wise to the ways that the Europeans fought, and this almost led to their victory. But Cortes still used clever tactics in the final siege that, in combination with his native allies and the epidemics of disease, brought about the fall of the Aztec empire.
Summary of the
Fall of the Aztec Empire
Here's a (very) brief summary of the fall of the Aztec empire, after the arrival of Hernando Cortes until the fall of Tenochtitlán.
1519 (March 4): The Spaniards land in what is now Veracruz. The natives greet him with gifts. A contingent from Tenochtitlán also arrives with gifts. Cortes showed force and demonstrated his canons, terrifying the messengers.
Cortes sinks all the ships except one small vessel, and moves to the city-state of Tlaxcala. Generally speaking they begin on friendly terms.
The Spanish went on to Cholula. It's unclear what happened, but in the end many people in the city were killed by the Spanish.
1519 (Nov 8): Cortes and army arrives at Tenochtitlán, and begin on good terms. However, Cortes takes charge and demands tribute and some Roman Catholic shrines to replace the Aztec gods.
Cortes returns to the coast to defeat a rival Spanish army. The remaining soldiers join him.
The Aztecs revolt, driving the Spanish from the city. Cuitláhuac becomes emperor.
The Spanish go to Tlaxcala and make an alliance with them.
Most Aztec cities are conquered, and a siege of Tenochtitlán begins.
1521 (13 August): The last Aztec emperor, Cuauhtémoc, surrenders to Cortes.
jueves, 6 de septiembre de 2018
Gunpowder
Guns: The Invention of Gunpowder
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D2r34lGjbIY
EXTRA VIDEOS:
The Deadly Irony of Gunpowder
Gunpowder to Guns
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FIzR9nfO6Rk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D2r34lGjbIY
EXTRA VIDEOS:
The Deadly Irony of Gunpowder
Gunpowder to Guns
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FIzR9nfO6Rk
The Formative Period & Cultures
The Formative Period
In the archaeological record of roughly 2000 to 1300 years ago, we can follow the story of the desert people’s emergence from their Archaic past, their transition to a lifestyle characterized less by nomadic hunting and gathering than by established villages and farms. The change occurred gradually and broadly, prodded at least in part by influences from the Mesoamerican region of southern Mexico. It appeared like a new horizon materializing out of Archaic mists, bit by bit, region by region, century by century. It signals the beginning of what archaeologists call the Formative Period, which would endure into historic times. Slow as it was, the season of change contrasts vividly with the prolonged cultural stability of the ancestral cultures.
The Cultural Stability of Earlier Times
The Paleo Indians, by far the most culturally unified and stable of all American peoples, hunted and gathered in small groups across the Americas and the southwestern U. S. and northern Mexico with comparatively little apparent change for more than 30,000 years (if we can accept Scotty MacNeish’s dates for the earliest Pendejo Cave occupation, see Paleo Indians: Shadows in the Night, DesertUSA archives, May, 2001). They foraged opportunistically until 15,000 to 12,000 years ago. They then apparently intensified their hunting when they turned to big game, armed, evidently for the first time, with spears tipped with beautifully crafted stone points. They would follow the great herds for several thousand years, until the end of the last of the Ice Ages about 10,000 years ago. Even then, they continued to hunt and gather for another 1000 to 2000 years even though large game animal populations had declined and some species had disappeared as the climate warmed and dried.
The Desert Archaic peoples, descendants of the nomadic Paleo Indians, remained true to the ancient hunting and gathering traditions for another seven millennia. The Early Desert Archaic bands did adapt to the changing climate, relying less on hunting and more on wild plant harvests, a practice they followed for more than 2000 years. The Middle Desert Archaic peoples remained fundamentally hunters and gatherers even though some began to experiment with village life, agriculture, food storage and cultural diversification. Even Late Desert Archaic bands held on to their hunting and gathering core although a few groups established true villages, practiced some marginal agriculture or gardening, and developed individual cultural signatures.
A few archaeologists think that hunting and gathering were so embedded that some desert bands may have continued the basic late Archaic lifestyle until well into EuroAmerican times. These would have included groups similar to the Great Basin Shoshoni, a historic tribe whose small extended family bands followed a seasonal circuit, hunting small game, harvesting wild plants, and occupying shallow caves or simple windbreaks or brush dwellings.
Other archaeologists believe that there is no indisputable evidence to support the proposition that bands comparable to the Shoshoni continued to hunt and gather without interruption in the southwestern U. S. into historic times. They think that all Indian populations across the U. S. desert adopted a village and agriculture lifestyle during the first half of the Formative Period, although they also believe that the peoples continued to hunt and gather to supplement agricultural production. The archaeologists do acknowledge that some unknown Shoshoni-type bands could have existed in northern Mexico, at least in the areas where little archaeological investigation has been done.
The Metamorphosis
Village Life
The early Formative Period farmers constructed villages which served as year-round residences or, at least, seasonal base residences—a place to come home to. This reflected an increasing acceptance of agriculture and a slow but steady growth in populations. They often built their villages at valley bottom sites located near arable soils and springs or streams and bounded by mountain slopes with game and wild food plants.
Giving up traditional mobility, they invested substantial labor in building more durable and somewhat larger dwellings, which would provide housing for populations in the dozens, not for weeks or months, but for years. In southern Arizona, they built clustered houses over shallow, rectangular-shaped depressions. In the Four Corners area and in southern New Mexico, they erected clustered houses over three- or four-foot deep round to oval pits.
An early farmer’s house in southern New Mexico, for example, might span a floor space of a few hundred square feet. It had a dome-shaped brush roof plastered with mud or clay and supported with posts. It had a covered and ramped passageway for an entrance. It had a fire hearth at the center of the floor and several storage niches scattered around the fire hearth. Sometimes a deceased family member lay buried beneath the floor surface.
Often the villagers built a larger structure which would accommodate the whole population for rituals, celebrations and community business. These may have been forerunners to the Pueblo ceremonial chambers called "kivas."
Near villages which could not always count on a year-round spring or stream flow, the residents may have dug wells to trap runoff or tap shallow water tables. Their Archaic ancestors had dug such wells for more than 2000 years.
The farmers planted fields not only in the valley bottoms, but also in tributary canyon bottoms and on hillsides, reasoning that they could offset a crop failure in one location with success in other locations. They raised several different strains of corn. One, called "Chapalote," withstood drought better than earlier strains. The other, "Maiz de Ocho" (literally, "Corn of Eight"), had eight rows of kernels which were larger and softer than those of earlier strains.
Corn lay at the core of their agriculture, but they also raised beans and squash, which added important vitamins, minerals and amino acids to their diets. In some areas, they raised cotton, probably using the fiber for weaving and the seeds (rich in oil) for food. In a good season in favorable locations, a village might produce enough food on an acre of land to support a resident for a year.
The early farmers used simple digging sticks to plant their seeds and to weed and cultivate the soil. They likely posted watches throughout the growing season to drive away rodents and birds which would try to raid the crops. In southern Arizona, they irrigated their fields by drawing water from the Gila River and channeling it through extensive canal systems which resembled those of Mesoamerica. Across the southwestern U. S. and in northern Mexico, the early farmers likely experienced highly variable yields from their crops from year to year.
Although they turned increasingly to agriculture, they continued to rely on the old ways as well. Hunting parties continued to take deer and the smaller game, using weapons, snares and net traps. Gathering expeditions continued to harvest wild plants in season. Game and wild plants provided not only supplements to the food supply, but also raw materials for making clothing, bedding, basketwares and other articles.
Following precedents set in late in the Archaic Period, the early Formative farmers offset the shortages of lean times by banking surplus seed in storage pits, which would protect a cache for years. They dug the pits both under their dwelling floors and outside the dwelling walls. Typically, they excavated slightly bell-shaped pits which measured several feet deep and several feet across, and they often lined the sides with clay or stone slabs to constrain wall collapse. They capped the pits with clay or mud to seal out vermin as well as moisture. Some dug pits large enough to contain one to two tons of corn. In their latter centuries, they also used large pots for storage. They drew down their surpluses both for food and for crop seed.
The early villagers and farmers of the desert looked to southern Mexico as the original source of their domesticated plants, but they did not adopt the distant recipes. They continued to prepare food in traditional ways. The southern Mexico peoples, for example, soaked corn kernels in a lime solution to soften them prior to crushing them into flour. The desert farmers simply dried corn kernels and ground them into flour on a milling stone just as they had always ground wild grass seeds. They also roasted fresh ears of corn over the coals of their fire hearths. They parched corn and other seeds by shaking them constantly in shallow vessels held over hot coals.
They boiled beans and cooked stews by dropping hot stones directly into the cooking vessels. They sliced squash into strips for drying, and they separated the seed for parching. They roasted meat and plant foods over open fires or in large fire pits.
With the emergence of increased populations, sedentary villages, agriculture and storage, skilled specialists found the freedom to dedicate more time to crafts. As the archaeological evidence suggests, they intensified the manufacture of superb basketware, made from coiled plant materials such as split willow or rabbitbush and waterproofed with coatings of pitch. They wove plant materials into carrying bags and large trap nets. (The early farmers in the Four Corners regions are, in fact, called "Basketmakers" because of their signature product.) Craftsmen used skins from game animals, feathers from domesticated turkeys, fibers from yucca and other plants, and textiles of woven cotton to make clothing, sandals, cradles and blankets. They produced jewelry and ornaments such as necklaces and bracelets from bone, shell and wood. They crafted wood, sinew and stone into tools for the fields and weapons for the hunt. They turned reeds into flutes, wood and bone into gaming pieces. They fashioned minerals, wood, bone and feathers into elaborate ceremonial objects, which became centerpieces for seasonal rituals.
Innovations
Although pottery appeared very late in the Archaic Period, introduced almost certainly from Mesoamerica, it was not broadly accepted by the early Formative Period farmers for centuries. Like corn two millennia earlier, it had come northward by an unknown route, conveyed by unknown hands. It may have served as a currency of trade. It may have represented an acquired skill.
The earliest pots we know, from southern Arizona and New Mexico, were well crafted shallow bowls and spherical-shaped jars, uniformly reddish or brown in color, with no significant decoration. They were intended to serve a utilitarian, not an artistic, role in sedentary village life. Over time, pots would displace pitch-covered baskets as cooking vessels, and they would find uses in transportation and storage of food stuffs and water.
Pottery and pot making moved slowly northward, presumably village to village, across the desert, not reaching the Four Corners area until midway through the first millennium. Some pots begin to show experimentation with decoration: broad lines and chevrons painted over the reddish and brown fired clays; designs reminiscent of those used for baskets; and different shapes of vessels. Pots would eventually mark the slow and distinctive evolution of the technology, style and artistry of regions, villages and perhaps even individual potters. They suggest trade activities and contacts among villages and regions. They serve as markers of time.
In the hands of an authority on prehistoric ceramics of the desert, for example, experts like Toni Laumbach, who is associated with the Southwest archaeological firm Human Systems Research, Inc., pottery speaks of its place of origin, its period of manufacture, its role in trade, its function in village life and ceremony.
The bow and arrow, which appear in the archaeological record – primarily in dry cave sites – beginning about 500 A. D., took the early farming people another step beyond Archaic times. Compared with the traditional spear and atlatl (or, throwing stick), the bow and arrow offered greater accuracy and increased portability and firepower. Unlike pottery, which came from the south into the desert Southwest and northern Mexico, the bow and arrow apparently came from the north, possibly from the Great Basin, where the weapon appeared at the beginning of the first millennium A. D. (Of course, some bands may have introduced the bow and arrow into the Sonoran or Chihuahuan desert regions centuries earlier than 500 A. D., but the archaeological evidence has not been found.)
Material wealth in the form of heavy ceramics, stone tools, weapons, wooden farm implements, food stores, clothing, jewelry became a byproduct of village life. Such things could not have been transported conveniently in quantity by nomadic, hunting and gathering Paleo and Archaic peoples. With material wealth likely came at least modest social stratification, which is suggested by the relative abundance of artifacts in burials.
Spirituality and Ritual
The early farming communities made spirituality and ritual a centerpiece of their lives, possibly merging ancient world views and ceremonies associated with their hunting and gathering origins with new perspectives and rites derived from their new village and farming lifestyle.
As Woodbury and Zubrow said in their paper on the beginnings of agriculture in the desert, "The enormous complexity of ritual activity that characterizes the Indians of the Southwest in historic times suggests a great time-depth, so that even two millennia ago there was probably an elaborate annual series of ceremonies related to the basic social and economic needs of the group—individual progress through the stages of life, security and health, and economic well-being."
Religious leaders clearly gave elaborate ceremonial expression to spirituality. In Indian Rock Art of the Southwest, Polly Schaafsma said, speaking of rock art by the early farmers in the Four Corners area, "I suggest that the art styles involved [the portrayal of large human figures with supernatural attributes] were underlain by a related ideographic system or religious structure based on shamanic practices."
Speaking of figures with a "slightly tapered trapezoidal body shape and drooping hands and feet," which are pecked into stone surfaces near the San Juan River in northwestern New Mexico, Schaafsma said, "Considering their elaborate headgear and other paraphernalia and the occasional depiction of masks, I feel that the Basketmaker anthropomorphs not only had ceremonial import but that they exceeded the realm of the ordinary; they were probably representations either of supernatural beings themselves or of shamans. Images such as these may have been thought to contain the soul force of the beings they represent."
Cultural Diversification
The Paleo Indians sustained a remarkable cultural unity and stability across a continent for many thousands of years. The Archaic Indians retained the hallmarks of hunting and gathering peoples for more than 6000 years, but touched by Mesoamerica’s magic wand of agriculture, they began to experiment with change. "By about 3000 B. C.," Woodbury and Zubrow said, "there were several localized variants of the Archaic in the southwest, a western (San Dieguito-Pinto tradition) a northern (Oshara tradition), a southern (Cochise tradition), and a southeastern….
The early communities of Formative Period villagers and farmers, while sharing many similarities, nevertheless developed clear regional cultural differences from about 2000 to some 1300 years ago. Woodbury and Zubrow said, "By A. D. 500 the culture patterns that set off the Southwest from the rest of North America had emerged in elementary form and succeeding centuries saw their elaboration."
The early Formative Period people gave rise to the Mogollons of southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico, western Texas and northern Chihuahua; the Hohokam of south-central Arizona and northern Sonora; the Patayan of the lower Colorado River; and the famed Anasazi of the greater Four Corners region. Those are the cultural regions we will explore in DesertUSA’s continuing series on the Native American peoples of the southwestern U. S. and northern Mexico.
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Formative Period
Beginning around 4,000 - 5,000 years ago new features of subsistence, technology, and society began to appear at somewhat different times in different parts of North America. Settlements became larger, and there were more of them. Many settlements were located in ecotones, areas where two or more environments came together. By settling in such prime locations, people could exploit a wider variety of resources without having to relocate their homes. Over time, smaller camps were established in other areas, forming satellite communities. Eventually, each major community was surrounded by peripheral settlements and new forms of social and political relationships emerged, especially non-egalitarian political systems. Accompanying these changes were marked differences in wealth as well as access to goods and services, both within and between communities, resulting in some societies becoming highly stratified, with elites, nobles, commoners, poor, and vagabonds, and in some communities, occupational specialist guilds arose.
Major features of the Formative Period
Eastern North America - The Woodland Period
In eastern North America many groups began to supplement their gathering and hunting diet by the deliberate planting of native plants. The seeds (sunflower, goosefoot, marsh elder, gourd) eventually taken under domestication were collected from wild stands along river floodplains for centuries before they were cultivated deliberately. This development occurred within a number of more-or-less isolated gathering-and-hunting cultures living in small river valleys, with the cultivated plants filling a small niche in an otherwise very diverse diet of wild plant foods, fish, waterfowl, and game animals.
Adena
Hopewell
Mississippian
The Southwest
Hohokam
Mogollon
Anasazi
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